Topics related to Musar are scattered throughout the Bible and the literature of the Sages, often in the form of stories with an implicit moral lesson. The Musar literature systematized and ordered these concepts and produced a complete moral worldview. Musar literature illustrates, via the Torah’s commandments and stories, the positive and negative qualities of human beings, and defines proper and improper behavior. Close examination of the message of each story reveals what is proper and improper behavior.

This branch of literature became popular among all classes of the Jewish people because of its similarity to aggadic literature. It also addresses topics that are not well developed in aggadic literature but rather in mystical literature, such as the reward and punishment received for keeping or transgressing the mitzvot. This fits the biblical sense of the term musar, which means chastisement or punishment. These texts are today mainly learned by devotees of Musar. Some call such works “books of awe” due to the fear that they evoke in the reader.

Later Musar literature returned to the world of halakha, and applied Musar ideas to the day-to-day challenges of the Jew, whether in the synagogue or in the marketplace.

Rabbi Elazar Azikri (1533–1600) was born in Safed and is buried next to Rabbi Yitzĥak Luria (Arizal) in the old cemetery of Safed. He studied under the great halakhists and kabbalists of his generation. He wrote commentaries on several tractates of the Babylonian and Jerusalem Talmuds. His most famous work is Sefer Ĥaredim, which arranges the mitzvot according to the parts of the body: hands, feet, nose, ears, eyes, trachea, esophagus, and heart. He emphasizes love of God as well as of humankind, and stresses the importance of harmony and fellowship between people. He established the Sukkat Shalom group, whose objective was to bring its members together and rouse them to devote themselves to God. The book is called Sefer Ĥaredim due to the great fear [harada] one should feel for improper behavior. The song Yedid Nefesh, which was later included in the prayer book, first appeared in Sefer Ĥaredim.

From Rabbi Elazar Azikri:

You must be aware that the mitzvot are all one. It is impossible to have one without another. This is like a woven garment; each thread is attached to another and participates in [the garment’s] existence.

Rabbi Shmuel de Uçeda (1545–1604) was born in Safed. He established a yeshiva where Talmud and halakha were studied alongside Kabbala. His book Midrash Shmuel is a collection of commentaries on tractate Avot, along with his own explanations of various topics in the tractate. He also wrote commentaries on the books of Ruth and Lamentations. He was a student of the Arizal, and he signed the letter recognizing Rabbi Ĥayyim Vital as the Arizal’s successor.

From Rabbi Shmuel de Uçeda:

Why is it the custom in all places to study tractate Avot between Passover and Shavuot, one chapter each Shabbat? Because at that time, the days become warmer. Physical desires are stirred up, and the evil inclination begins to rule over us. This tractate is full of words of rebuke. It encourages a person to pursue his good traits. This way, the good inclination overcomes the evil inclination. Therefore, it was decreed that tractate Avot should be studied at this time.

Rabbi Eliyahu de Vidas (sixteenth century) was born in Safed and studied with Rabbi Moshe Cordovero. He apparently served as the chief rabbi of Hebron, which is where he died. His book Reshit Ĥokhma is a collection of passages and stories from the Talmud, Midrash, and Zohar. The aim of the book is to instruct the individual on how to serve God. It is divided into five sections: fear, love, repentance, holiness, and humility. The book was published during the writer’s lifetime and has been printed in several editions. A number of abridged versions have also been written, demonstrating the work’s popularity.

From Rabbi Eliyahu de Vidas:

The essence of Torah for its own sake is learning Torah in order to fulfill it…that the wisdom of the Torah should impart understanding of fear of Heaven to the individual…. One’s wisdom will endure through this, as this wisdom was obtained only in the service of advancing fear of Heaven, which is the fulfillment of the Torah.

Rabbi Yeshaya HaLevi Horowitz (1558–1630) was born in Prague and served as the rabbi of Frankfurt, Poznan, and Krakow. He moved to Jerusalem at an advanced age. His major work, Shenei Luĥot HaBerit (abbreviated to Shelah), contains customs, Kabbala, halakha, Musar, sermons, biblical commentary, talmudic commentary, and an encyclopedia of talmudic terms. It is unique in its incorporation of such varied subjects in one work.

He had a significant influence on the hasidic movement. He also compiled a prayer book, called Siddur Sha’ar HaShamayim, and composed prayers to be recited on particular days. He suffered persecution at the hands of the Ottoman authorities in Jerusalem, and was even imprisoned for a short time. Subsequently, he was forced to flee to Safed. Later, he moved to Tiberias, where he died.

From Rabbi Yeshaya HaLevi Horowitz:

This was the wisdom of Adam the first man; he gave a name to each thing so that it would be known by that name…. Every creation in the lower realm has a source in the upper realm. If this were not so, how could the elements of this world connect [to the upper worlds], if their foundations have no source above? If creatures have no source above, how would the abundance and providence of the Master of everything spread over them? This was his wonderful insight; he perceived the source of each thing and named it in accordance with its true essence.

Rabbi Moshe Ĥayyim Luzzatto (1707–1747) was born in Padua, Italy. He moved to Mantua and later to Frankfurt, Amsterdam, and ultimately Akko. He is buried in Tiberias. He was a prolific writer. His best-known works of Kabbala are: 138 Pitĥei Ĥokhma, which discusses the foundations of Kabbala; Da’at Tevunot, written as a discussion between the mind and soul; and Ĥoker UMekubal, a proof of the truth of Kabbala.

His most famous works are Mesilat Yesharim, a book of Musar that teaches the reader how to progress from one level to the next in one’s service of God and ultimately attain divine revelation; and Derekh Hashem, which is about the foundations of faith. He also wrote books of logic, rhetoric, and grammar: Leshon Limudim and Sefer HaHigayon, as well as plays written in the Italian dramatic style: Migdal Oz and LaYesharim Tehila.

Some rabbis of his generation suspected him of heresy and Sabbateanism. He was excommunicated and made to take an oath that he would not study or teach Kabbala, and his works were even confiscated. He earned his living as a diamond cutter. He was eventually suspected of violating his oath, and he was compelled to immigrate to the Land of Israel. He settled in Akko, where he died in a plague.

From Ramĥal:

The foundation of piety, and the root of pure complete service of God, is that one clarifies and ascertains his obligation in this world and determines where his gaze and purpose need to be directed in all his life’s endeavors.

Rabbi Eliyahu HaKohen (1659–1729), who was born and lived in Izmir, Turkey, was a rabbinic judge and kabbalist. His most famous work is Shevet Musar, which discusses asceticism in this world, and reward and punishment in the World to Come. He was wealthy, and he strongly believed that the wealthy are obligated to care for the poor, rebuking the wealthy members of his congregation about this. His book was known to inspire fear and awe as a result of the castigations and punishments described in it. It is told that Rabbi Simĥa Bunim of Peshisĥa said that he once encountered someone who insulted and accused him, but Rabbi Simĥa Bunim then kissed him. When asked who it was, he explained that he was referring to the book Shevet Musar.

From Rabbi Eliyahu HaKohen:

One must take to heart the fact that the Holy One, blessed be He, made him wealthy in order to make him a guardian of the poor…. One must place before his eyes the fact that by providing the poor with what he has, he can profit, by acquiring his place in the World to Come.