Many of the earliest writings in the field of Jewish thought were written as commentaries on the Bible. Commentary was necessary due to the difficulties that arise in the attempt to understand biblical language, but each commentator chooses to explain the meaning of the text and present his understanding of the biblical worldview, while emphasizing the themes that are close to his heart. Consequently, Torah commentary weaves together simple explanations of terminology and concepts, with elucidations of the profound ideas that are embodied in the condensed biblical text. Such Torah commentary is fruitful and creative, making the Torah into a continuous stream of ideas that answer the reader’s questions even before he asks them.

Ibn Ezra (1089–1164) was born in Tudela, Spain, but was compelled to flee as a result of religious persecution. He wandered to Italy, France, and even England and North Africa. He never received communal support in his travels, and he lived in poverty.

He was a close friend of Rav Yehuda HaLevi, and like him, Ibn Ezra wrote hundreds of hymns, some of which are still sung today by Jews throughout the world, e.g., Agadelkha Elohei Khol Neshama, Lekha Eli Teshukati, and Tzama Lekha Nafshi. He wrote numerous works of grammar, including Sefat Yeter, Safa Berura, and Tzaĥot, as well as books on mathematics, including Sefer HaMispar and Sefer HaEĥad.

In his biblical commentary, he makes use of grammar to identify the straightforward meaning of the text, comparing the Torah’s wording to that employed in the Prophets and Writings. Each brilliant linguistic analysis is condensed into just a few words and unlocks the true meaning of the text. In his commentary, he did not feel himself beholden to the interpretations of the talmudic Sages.

Ibn Ezra enjoyed word games and mathematical puzzles, and he also learned astronomy. There is a crater on the moon, Abenezra, which is named after him.

From Rav Avraham ibn Ezra:

The fifth way, the interpretive approach that I will employ, is to explain each verse in accordance with its context, grammar, and straightforward meaning. Only with regard to mitzvot and statutes will I rely on our early Sages and I will establish our terminology in accordance with their words.

Rabbeinu Baĥya (1255–1340), a student of Rashba, was born and lived in Saragossa, Spain. It is believed that his name derives from the term ben Ĥiyya, son of Hiyya. His book Rabbeinu Baĥya on the Torah, or just Rabbeinu Baĥya, was written in the style of aggadic midrash. At the beginning of each Torah portion he cites a verse from the book of Proverbs and then explains the Torah portion in accordance with its plain, midrashic, philosophical, and mystical meanings. As the work quotes many aggadic midrashim that have since been lost, it is a valuable source of these texts.

Rabbeinu Baĥya’s book Kad HaKemaĥ includes sermons on subjects of faith and Musar. Another of his works, Shulĥan Shel Arba, addresses the halakhot of mealtimes. It also discusses the celebratory feast, described in aggadic midrash, that will take place in the messianic era.

From Rabbeinu Baĥya ibn Halawa:

Our Torah consists of all wisdom; all other types of wisdom are maidservants to it. They are presented as matters for in-depth investigation, but our Torah is from the Holy One, blessed be He, and it is the foundation of everything.

Abravanel (1437–1508) was born in Lisbon, Portugal, but was forced to flee from there, and went to Toledo, Spain. He served as treasurer to the kings of Portugal, Castile, Aragon, and Naples. As a result of his close ties to the authorities, he was able to assist Jews who were in trouble. Nevertheless, he was unable to prevent the expulsion from Spain or the confiscation of his personal fortune. Following the expulsion of the Jews from Spain he lived in various areas of Italy, including Naples, Sicily, and Venice.

His biblical commentary is known for being thorough and methodical. At the beginning of each section, he lists all the questions that need to be addressed, and then he answers them one by one. In his books Yeshuot Meshiĥo and Mashmia Yeshua, he develops the themes of faith in the messiah and in the resurrection of the dead.

As befitted a member of the Abravanel family, a large family of financiers and politicians said to be descended from King David, he also wrote about the Torah’s political approach: Who is fit to rule and the proper form of government.

From Don Yitzĥak Abravanel:

Look at the lands that are under the leadership of kings…. Each [king] does whatever is right in his eyes, and the land is filled with cruelty because of them. For who shall tell him what to do…? Today, the kingdoms of Venice…Florence…Genoa…Siena, Bologna, and others, have no king; rather, they have leaders who have been elected to lead from a fixed day until a fixed day. These are the righteous kingdoms; they are not crooked.

Rav Avraham Saba (1440–1508) was born in Castile, Spain, and began writing his Torah commentary there. After the expulsion from Spain, he found refuge in Portugal, but a short while later the king of Portugal ordered forced conversions to Christianity and prohibited the possession of Jewish religious items. He was consequently compelled to hide his writings under an olive tree near Lisbon. From there, he fled to Fez, Morocco, where he managed to rewrite these texts from memory despite already being old and sick.

He wrote several books, including Tzeror HaMor, which combines interpretation according to the plain meaning of the text with kabbalistic interpretation, producing original ideas. Legend has it that while he was on a ship to Verona, Italy, Rav Avraham became ill. There was a terrible storm, and he told the sailors that if they agreed not to throw his body overboard in the event of his death, he would pray that the ship would not sink. He died a few days later, and the sailors fulfilled his wish, bringing his body to the Jewish community of Verona for burial in the city’s Jewish cemetery.

From Rav Avraham Saba:

I trust in God that He will help me, and place a new song in my mouth, so that I may remember a little of what I wrote. For I know that the bulk of the original book is missing, because old age and forgetfulness have advanced within me.

Sforno (1468–1550) was born in Cesena, Italy, and was the leader of the Jewish community of Rome and later of Bologna, where he died. His commentary on the Bible is concise, focused on the plain meaning of the text, and written in the philosophical style. It was well received and was printed in Mikraot Gedolot, a popular edition of the Torah with several commentaries, which caused it to become even more widespread.

Sforno had a thorough knowledge of mathematics and grammar, worked as a doctor, and was fluent in many languages. He translated books from Hebrew to Italian for the pope, the king of France, and numerous European scholars. In Rome, he faced anti-Jewish persecution and was ultimately forced to leave. In Bologna, he answered questions of halakha and Jewish thought that were brought to him. He also established a printing house there.

From Rav Ovadya Sforno:

It is proper that a person try to marry a woman who is suitable for him and who will become attached to him, even if he will need to leave his parents. There will not be true attachment between people who are dissimilar, but only between people who are similar, because they will have similar opinions.

Rabbi Shlomo Efrayim Luntschitz (1540–1619) was born in Luntschitz, Poland, served as the head of the yeshiva in Lvov, and succeeded Maharal as the rabbi of Prague. He was known as a charismatic and inspiring speaker.

His famous work, Keli Yakar, is a collection of sermons on the weekly Torah portion that he gave over the years. In it, he interprets the different layers of the Torah: plain meaning (peshat), allusion (remez), exegesis (derash), and concealed meaning (sod). He is known for his mastery of the Torah as well as his sensitivity to the social realities of his time. Many of the sermons are concerned with communal matters and with correcting injustice. He frequently points out the inequalities between the ruling class of powerful rabbis and wealthy leaders on the one hand, and the poor on the other.

He wrote the book after he recovered from a serious illness, having vowed while ill that he would write it if he survived (Keli Yakar, Introduction): “In God’s mercy, He brought me out of turmoil, reviving me. On that day I vowed to God, ‘I will complete this work in honor of God and His Torah, in order to uncover His essence.’”

From Rabbi Shlomo Efrayim Luntschitz:

I have seen something scandalous in the words of most of the commentators who come to explain the Torah: There is almost nothing new in their statements. In most cases where there is a simple explanation that is readily understood, it is found in several commentaries…. I decided to minimize my use of the words of others in order not to extend my book using words that I did not work on. All my words adhere to the plain meaning of the text.

Rabbi Ĥayyim ben Atar (1696–1743) was born in Sale, Morocco, traveled to Fez and Meknes, lived in Livorno, Italy, and eventually immigrated to Jerusalem with many of his students and established the Keneset Yisrael yeshiva. He was a well-known preacher and charity collector. He wrote a number of books, including Ĥefetz Hashem on some tractates of the Talmud, Peri To’ar and Rishon LeTziyyon on Shulĥan Arukh, and Or HaĤayyim on the Torah.

He was greatly admired among Moroccan Jews, and hasidic leaders also recognized his greatness. They called his book “the holy Or HaĤayyim,” and established special times when it was to be studied. In the book, each Torah portion is analyzed thoroughly, and various interpretations are considered on the levels of plain meaning (peshat), allusion (remez), exegesis (derash), and concealed meaning (sod). The book stands out for its deep spiritual focus, both in its literary analysis as well as in the passion that it seeks to instill for Torah study.

From Rabbi Ĥayyim ben Atar:

When it states, “You shall love your neighbor as yourself” (Leviticus 19:18), this means: Love him because he is like yourself. When he prospers, this will benefit you, and through him, you will perfect yourself. Consequently, he is not a separate entity; rather, he is like a part of you.

Rabbi Yaakov Tzvi Mecklenburg (1795–1865) was born in Leszno, Poland, was a student of Rabbi Akiva Eiger, and served as the rabbi of Koenigsberg, Germany. He was an active opponent of the Reform movement in Germany, whose leaders were making changes to the halakha and the prayer liturgy.

His main work was HaKetav VehaKabbala, a commentary on the Torah whose objective was to explain the straightforward meaning of the Written Torah, which he refers to as the ketav, in accordance with the traditional interpretation of the Oral Torah, which he refers to as the kabbala. He uses grammar and cantillation marks to support his interpretations, and also proposes his own original explanations. The first book of its kind, it spurred the growth of an entire genre of biblical commentaries that seek to reveal the connection between the text’s straightforward meaning and the Midrash.

From Rabbi Yaakov Tzvi Mecklenburg:

The Written Torah, [i.e., the ketav] and the oral tradition [kabbala] will be united in the hands of the people of the covenant…. What does the ketav, the “body,” have without the kabbala, the “soul”?

Netziv (1817–1893) was born in Mir, now in Belarus, and died in Warsaw, Poland. He served as the head of the Volozhin yeshiva for almost forty years. He studied halakhic midrashim and geonic literature, and wrote the commentary Ha’amek She’ala on She’iltot deRav Aĥai Gaon, while producing a critical edition of that work based on original sources and manuscripts.

He also wrote Ha’amek Davar, a commentary on the Torah, based on his discourses on the weekly Torah portion, which he would deliver in the yeshiva. In the book, he explains the straightforward meaning of the verses in accordance with their grammar. The work stands out for its literary analysis.

Netziv supported Hibat Tziyyon, a proto-Zionist movement, and was in contact with some of its leaders. Toward the end of his life he was forced to close the yeshiva due to pressure from the Russian authorities to change the nature of the institution.

From the Netziv:

This book, the book of Genesis, is called “the book of the upright” by the prophets…. The Holy One, blessed be He, is upright, and He tolerates only righteous people who walk the straight path, including in their dealings with the world. They must not be crooked, even if this is for the sake [i.e., the fear] of Heaven…. This was the greatness of the patriarchs. This teaches that they were saintly and pious and loved God in every possible way, but they were also upright.